Intercul tural Competences Conceptual and Operational FrameworkConceptual and Operational Framework Intercul tural CompetencesEditor Intersectoral Platform for a Culture of Peace and Non-Violence, Bureau for Strategic Planning Contact [email protected] http://www.unesco.org/new/en/bureau-of-strategic-planning/themes/culture-of-peace-and-non-violence/ Acknowledgments This document was realized thanks to the support of the Danish government. Published in 2013 by UNESCO 7 Place Fontenoy 75352 Paris 07 SP France Composed and printed in the workshops of UNESCO @ UNESCO 2013 All rights reserved BSP-2012/WS/ The authors are responsible for the choice and the presentation of the facts contained in this brochure and for the opinions expressed therein, which are not necessarily those of UNESCO and do not commit the Organization. 9I. FOREWORD II. THE CHALLENGE III. CONCEPTUAL VOCABULARY IV. A VISUAL CONCEPTUALIZATION, the Intercultural Competences Tree V. OPERATIONAL PLAN 1. Clarifying Intercultural Competences 2. Teaching Intercultural Competences 3. Promoting Intercultural Competences 4. Enacting Intercultural Competences 5. Supporting Intercultural Competences VI. CONCLUSION C o n t e n t s4 - Intercultural Competences I.FOREWORD All living cultures are outcomes of intercultural communication. Human history is the tale of such journeys. Th is becomes particularly evident in the globalization era where the ever-fast evolving cultural landscape is characterized by an intensifi ed diversity of peoples, communities and individuals who live more and more closely. Th e increasing diversity of cultures, which is fl uid, dynamic and transformative, implies specifi c competences1 and capacities for individuals and societies to learn, re-learn, and unlearn so as to meet personal fulfi lment and social harmony. Th e ability to decipher other cultures in fair and meaningful ways is predicated not only on an open and pluralistic spirit but also on self-cultural awareness. When a culture is critically aware of its own strengths and limitations, it can extend its horizons and enrich its intellectual and spiritual resources by learning from alternative visions in epistemology, ethics, aesthetics, and worldviews. UNESCO, like the entire United Nations, was created to promote mutual understanding, peace, democracy and development. Its specifi c mandate as a specialized agency is to translate these goals into everyday practice by fostering intercultural sensitivity and solidarity while fi ghting intolerance, stereotyping, discrimination, hate speech and violence. According to UNESCO’s Constitution, “… peace must be founded, if it is not to fail, upon the intellectual and moral solidarity of mankind”. Th is means that the Organization values and enhances human potential and capabilities for living together peacefully, free and equal, through its fi elds of competence: education, culture, sciences, communication and information, which are transformative tools for human dignity, mutual trust and shared responsibilities. Yet, the constant question remains as to the best approach to unity-in-diversity, or, even more, to the achievement of unity beyond diversity through full participation in the infi nite wealth of the cultures of the world. Th is is the essence of the newly adopted UNESCO’s “Programme of action for a culture of peace and non-violence” with a twofold objective: highlighting the emergence of a sense of belonging to a shared, plural and fragile humanity and giving prominence to the wealth of cultures as well as to the mutual respect that must exist between them with a view to facilitating an eff ective culture of peace. Approaching cultural diversity requires that the broadest possible range of competences be identifi ed and promoted, especially those that societies have devised and transmitted throughout succeeding generations. Because intercultural interactions have become a constant feature of modern life, even in the most traditional societies, the very manner in whichIntercultural Competences - 5 individuals and communities manage encounters with cultural others is under scrutiny. Hence the growing awareness among policy-makers and civil society that intercultural competences may constitute a very relevant resource to help individuals negotiate cultural boundaries throughout their personal encounters and experiences. Th ey are becoming an integral part of the refl ection on what the UNESCO Report directed by J. Delors, Learning : Th e Treasure Within (UNESCO, 1996), had termed as “learning to live together”. It must be noted that “learning” is fi rst and foremost about considering any matter, object or being as a symbol to be deciphered, or interpreted. Intercultural competences are abilities to adeptly navigate complex environments marked by a growing diversity of peoples, cultures and lifestyles, in other terms, abilities to perform “eff ectively and appropriately when interacting with others who are linguistically and culturally diff erent from oneself ” (Fantini & Tirmizi, 2006). Schools are a central place to nurture such skills and abilities, as was underlined by UNESCO in a previous publication, Guidelines on Intercultural Education (UNESCO, 2006b). Nevertheless, given their relevance for social and political life, the scope of intercultural competences is much wider than formal education. Th ey have to reach out to a new generation of cybercitizens, notably young men and women who have unimagined opportunities for global conversations. Th is idea was further developed in the UNESCO World Report Investing in Cultural Diversity and Intercultural Dialogue (UNESCO, 2009): “it is a new kind of literacy, on a par with the importance of reading and writing skills or numeracy: cultural literacy has become the lifeline for today’s world, a fundamental resource for harnessing the multiple venues education can take (from family and tradition to the media, both old and new, and to informal groups and activities) and an indispensable tool for transcending the clash of ignorances. It can be seen as part of a broad toolkit of worldviews, attitudes and competences that young people acquire for their lifelong journey.” Intercultural competences aim at freeing people from their own logic and cultural idioms in order to engage with others and listen to their ideas, which may involve belonging to one or more cultural systems, particularly if they are not valued or recognized in a given socio- political context. Acquiring intercultural competences is a thrilling challenge since no one is, naturally, called upon to understand the values of others. Th is challenge is a unique opportunity in the history of humankind.6 - Intercultural Competences It invites everybody to avoid all phenomena of confi ne- ment or ghettoization by off ering new opportunities of multiple interpretations and unexpected discoveries. Th ese opportunities sometimes lead to rediscovering one’s own identity under the deciphered forms of the ‘other’. Th erefore, intercultural competences empower the participating groups and individuals and enable them to interact with cultural ‘others’ with a view to bridging diff erences, defusing confl icts and setting the foundations of peaceful coexistence. While a number of intercultural competences and skills have been identifi ed, and proven strategies exist for strengthening their teaching, there are also countless oth- ers that remain to be discovered. Culturally diverse soci- eties around the world have devised traditional practices, representations and expressions that allow them to enjoy the benefi ts of diversity and to diminish its possible costs. With the aim of promoting the understanding and the enhancement of intercultural dialogue conducive to peace, a comparative study on concepts, methods and tools related to intercultural competences and skills was commissioned by UNESCO (2009).Th is comparative study, entitled “Promoting understanding and develop- ment of intercultural dialogue and peace” has drawn the main lines and trends of the actual debate on intercultural competences by: i) establishing a state of the art of main concepts, tools and methods that have been developed and applied successfully in the fi eld of intercultural com- munication and mediation; ii) refl ecting on diverse ways that societies have elaborated to mediate cultural diff er- ence, combat prejudice and strengthen social cohesion; and iii) identifying those skills, competences and social institutions that are of broader applicability and propose methods for conveying such skills to communities else- where. Furthermore, an experts meeting was convened to both discuss the contents and the recommendations of the abovementioned comparative study with the objective of setting up proper strategies for its implementation. Th is meeting off ered a precious opportunity for discus- sion with experts who had not contributed to the study but who were very much involved in this topic. Drawing upon its longstanding experience, UNESCO is currently working to enrich the content of intercultural competences with the principles and values of human rights. Th is exercise is expected to result in the develop- ment of a set of guidelines intended to mainstream the use of human rights-based intercultural competences in various fi elds of policy-making. Th e guidelines are to be accompanied by a training manual to support their im- plementation. Both the guidelines and the manual are intended for a variety of actors and stakeholders, from ministerial offi cials and planners to local authorities and youth leaders. Th e present publication seeks to address this topic of growing interest to many audiences in all the regions of the world, intercultural competences. What are they? Why should do they matter so much today – and why will they matter even more tomorrow? In that spirit, the content and the structure of this pub- lication is to provide everyone with a pool of ideas and keys that can be refl exively used. Th e fl exible organiza- tion of the booklet allows the reader to espouse con- stellations of concepts and guidelines, the ultimate co- herence and relevance of which is to be found in their context of meaningful application. It is hoped that the following pages will provide a good start on the basic terminology needed in order to de- velop intercultural competences and to permit intercul- tural dialogues, as well as outlining a series of minimally necessary steps to take in sharing this knowledge with the largest number of others, across the greatest selection of contexts, possible. Training a set of designated facili- tators, no matter how skilled, has already proved inad- equate to maintaining human rights and world peace. Th erefore it becomes essential to implement further reaching changes: everyone needs intercultural compe- tences today as a result of globalization, and so eff orts must be made to ensure that everyone gains them. UNESCO remains more than ever committed to raise awareness on intercultural competences, ensuring that they are studied, taught, and promoted not only at a theo- retical level but also as a toolbox of knowledge, skills and abilities to prepare individuals to a wide variety of diverse situations in daily life within and among our contempo- rary plural societies.Intercultural Competences - 7 II. THE CHALLENGE Globalization shrinks the world, bringing a wider range of cultures into closer contact than ever before. Inevitably, cultural boundaries are shifting, therefore the pace of social transformations is increasing. As a result, cultural diversity and intercultural contact have become facts of modern life, so intercultural competences become a requisite response (UNESCO, 2009)1. Since cultural diversity serves as a resource (in the ways that biodiversity serves as a resource), and since it is impossible to stop contact between cultures, learning to positively shape a common future for humankind at all levels becomes essential. To this end, cultural diversity serves as a valuable resource to engage in lasting intercultural dialogues, with which it is intimately linked: neither of these two notions can fl ourish without the other. Th e resulting socio-cultural fabric of our societies, combined with global interconnectedness, necessitate specifi c attitudes, behaviours, knowledge, skills and abilities to cope with the new cultural, media and emotional landscape when systems have shown limited capacity to embrace diversity. Th erefore, the development of intercultural competences facilitates relationships and interactions among people from various origins and cultures as well as within heterogeneous groups, all of whom must learn to live together in peace. Intercultural competences permit, inter alia, sharing an awareness of selfhood and otherness with more and more people, thus avoiding risks such as the reproduction of stereotypes and the promotion of an essentialist perspective on culture2. In fact, cultures are driving forces for sustainable de- velopment and harmonious coexistence by connecting meanings conducive to self and mutual understanding as well as to contestation or accommodation of diff er- ences. Th e idea of culture as a shared, stable living space, supported equally by all members of the group, which passes it onto the next generation, is becoming less and less a reality. In this new environment, cultures observe one another, asking the same question: how to coexist and interact in a more and more interconnected world? Th is recurrent question is precisely the raison d’être for the creation of the United Nations and UNESCO in particular, the latter tasked with a soft power mandate organically integrating the culture of peace, sustainable development and knowledge societies. In this regard, important sources for developing the content of intercultural competences are the several key UN documents on human rights. In 1948, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights was the fi rst international instrument to establish a comprehensive list of rights to be applied to all individuals in all soci- eties and settings, thus providing a basis for managing W hat are intercultural competences and why are they necessary in this globalizing world that has moved people of diff erent backgrounds closer together? What place do intercultural competences take – and what place should they take – in shaping this world?8 - Intercultural Competences eties. A global culture of human rights requires com- petence in holding intercultural dialogues. And it is through intercultural dialogue that members of dif- ferent groups learn about one another. Human rights serve as an obvious topic for those holding intercultur- al dialogues, and so form part of a program designed to lead to a culture of peace, since “the culture of peace is above all a culture of peace-building, confl ict preven- tion and resolution, education for non-violence, toler- ance, acceptance, mutual respect, dialogue and recon- ciliation” (UNESCO, 2011a). At the same time, an environment where all human rights are fully respected provides the fertile ground for intercultural dialogue to blossom. All of these goals are furthered through inter- cultural dialogue, and hindered when people who are in contact with members of other cultural groups fail in their interactions. Th e report Learning: Th e Treasure Within, prepared by the International Commission on Education for the Twenty-First Century (UNESCO, 1996), identifi ed four pillars as the foundations of education: learn- ing to know, learning to do, learning to live together, and learning to be. Intercultural competences obvi- ously play an integral role in learning to live together. Learning to live together in an increasingly globalizing world, and thus at risk both of cultural homogeniza- tion and cultural fragmentation, means that everyone should be able to understand the stakes behind cul- tural diff erences and the potential benefi ts of cultural change4. Th e UNESCO World Report Investing in Cultural Diversity and Intercultural Dialogue makes it clear how crucial it is to acquire a cultural literacy to under- stand cultures in their creative diversity: “Th is is a new kind of literacy, on a par with the importance of read- ing and writing skills or numeracy: cultural literacy has become the lifeline for today’s world, a fundamental resource for harnessing the multiple venues education can take (from family and tradition to the media, both old and new, and to informal groups and activities) and an indispensible tool for transcending the ‘clash of ignorances.’ It can be seen as part of a broad toolkit of worldviews, attitudes and competences that young people acquire for their lifelong journey. Th e advocacy relations between various peoples and their multiple groups, notably through education. “Education shall be directed to the full development of the human person- ality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote under- standing, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall further the activi- ties of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace” (Article 26, paragraph 2). Intercultural competences complement human rights as a catalyst for promoting a culture of peaceful and harmonious coexistence. Hu- man rights include: 1. Civil and political rights (life, security, integrity, fundamental freedoms, access to justice); 2. Economic, social and cultural rights (education, health, work, food, housing, participation in economic, social and cultural life); 3. Fundamental principles such as: universality and inalienability; indivisibility, interrelatedness and interdependence, equality and non-discrimina- tion (women’s rights, rights of indigenous people, children’s rights, rights of persons with disabili- ties, rights of migrant workers), participation and inclusion, accountability and rule of law; 4. Individual and collective rights (free determina- tion, development, environment, rights belon- ging to such groups as indigenous peoples; free- dom of religious expression); 5. Elements and dimensions such as: availability, accessibility, adaptability, acceptability, quality and appropriateness.3 In 2001, the Universal Declaration on Cultural Di- versity affi rmed the position that “No one may invoke cultural diversity to infringe upon human rights guar- anteed by international law, nor to limit their scope” (UNESCO, 2001, Art. 4). Cultural diversity and hu- man rights must co-exist, not compete. In fact, “cul- tural diversity and intercultural dialogue are key levers for strengthening consensus on the universal founda- tion of human rights” (UNESCO, 2009, p. 27). Th e connection between human rights and intercul- tural dialogue holds great signifi cance, since these are mutually reinforcing in the creation of inclusive soci-Intercultural Competences - 9 for linguistic and cultural diversity within educa- tion is an awareness-raising campaign in need of holistic and offi cial recognition at the highest pos- sible levels in order to convince all parties of its benefi ts and relevance” (UNESCO, 2009, p. 118). Intercultural competences are closely integrated with learning to know, do, and be. Learning to know about cultural others provides the fi rst step in gaining intercultural competences, a step that can never be complete, for there are always still more others to meet. Learning to do serves as the active step of interacting with cultural others; through such interactions people both apply knowledge already gained, and acquire more, learning from interactions with others in the past, and designing future interactions. Learning to be relies upon the refl ective step of thinking about one’s social self as having a place in the global world. A culture of peace relies upon intercultural dialogue, as well as confl ict prevention and resolution, and so UNES- CO is committed to promoting intercultural com- petences, making these common competences to be studied, taught, and promoted not only at a theoretical level but as a way to approach a wide variety of diverse situations in daily life. Once the need for intercultural competences is ac- cepted and felt as urgency, it becomes essential to develop a broad range of theoretical concepts and defi nitions acknowledging multiple understand- ings, taking into consideration the existing plurality of languages, religions, histories and identities. In- creasingly diff erent groups co-exist in close proxim- ity and need to understand and negotiate concepts, perceptions, opportunities, and actions. Mutual trust and exchange about similar and diff ering ex- periences and values and overlapping lives serve as the beginning points for developing these common defi nitions and creating a new space of interactions. Th e following pages fi rst provide a glossary of key concepts and a conceptual framework to nurture the debate on intercultural competences - learning to know - and then an operational plan to turn debate into action - learning to be, to do, and to live together.10 - Intercultural Competences III. CONCEPTUAL VOCABULARY One early step must be to provide a set of terms useful in discussing intercultural competences and managing interactions across cultural groups de- spite diff erences. Th e conceptual vocabulary through which topics are discussed matters as these concepts shape what can easily be said. In defi ning terms, it is necessary neither to limit nor fi x a normative ap- proach. Instead, the goal becomes opening minds and understandings to the multiple meanings of in- tercultural competences, incorporating a plurality of backgrounds, perceptions, and intentions. Attempts at defi ning this one concept have implications for the defi nitions of related concepts as well, including: cul- tural diversity, peace, relationship, self, other, global- ization, adaptation, empathy, etc. Numerous possible interpretations arise, connected with the diversity of our worldviews, opinions, languages, cultures, disci- plines, beliefs, etc. Promoting a better and shared un- derstanding of the diverse meanings of these concepts can foster informed ways of using them. In this spirit, the following explanations of terms should be under- stood as providing only a starting point, not the fi nal word on the subject. Th e fi rst set of key concepts includes those already widely accepted as essential to understanding intercul- tural competences; the second set provides a set of ideas less frequently used, or drawn from a broader range of contexts. Th ese have great potential value, but would benefi t from elaboration with regard to what they can off er discussions of intercultural competences, and es- pecially in how the diff erent concepts fi t together. Culture is that set of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional features of a society or so- cial group, encompassing all the ways of being in that society; at a minimum, including art and literature, lifestyles, ways of living together, value systems, tradi- tions, and beliefs (UNESCO, 1982 and 2001). Each culture is the sum of assumptions and practices shared by members of a group distinguishing them from other groups, and so one culture comes into clearest focus when compared to another culture maintaining diff erent practices. However, cultures are themselves multiple, so that to insiders, every group reveals itself not as homogeneous but rather a nested series of pro- gressively smaller groups whose members are all too aware of distinctions between themselves. Cultures themselves are seldom the focus of attention in discus- sion of intercultural competences, for cultures have no existence apart from the people who construct and animate them. Th us members of cultural groups more adequately serve as the focus of attention. Cultural Identity refers to those aspects of identity shared by members of a culture that, taken as a set, mark them as distinct from members of other cul- tures. Like most forms of identity, cultural identity is socially constructed – that is, people do something to create and then claim it, whether that be speak- ing a particular language, eating particular foods, or following particular religious practices. Individu- als have multiple identities, and these change over time (Hecht, 1993) being constructed and recon- structed through communication in intercultural interactions. While others can be easily classifi ed as having singular, monolithic identities, everyone un- derstands their own identity to be a more complex matter, with multiple identities relevant to diff erent contexts: gender, class, age, ethnicity, region, history, nationality, occupation, each becoming relevant at diff erent times in the same person’s day. Identities change over time: the child grows up and becomes a parent; the citizen of one country moves, becom- ing a citizen of another; the student graduates and becomes a teacher. Recognition of the multiplicity and fl uidity of identity complicates our understand- ing of cultural pluralism (implying that people can- not accurately be categorized as only members of one group). At the same time, these facts simplify intercultural dialogue: since everyone has had the ex- perience of moving between contrasting identities, it makes sense to recognize others as members of mul- tiple groups as well. Being constructed, identities must be communicated from one individual to the next, and passed down from one generation to the next, most explicitly from parents to children. Chil- dren of parents raised in diff erent cultures provide an obvious example of individuals holding multipleIntercultural Competences - 11 cultural identities, since children frequently become competent in all (e.g., Akindes, 2005). Cultural diversity refers to the existence of a wide variety of cultures in the world today. Cultural diver- sity permits, and intercultural competences require, understanding one’s own culture but also recognizing that each culture provides only one option among many possibilities. Cultural diversity requires, and intercultural competences permit, the ability to con- vey information to others about one’s own culture through communication with them, as well as to in- terpret information about the other and his or her culture. Culture is the result of constant negotiation with members of one’s own group; communication is the vehicle through which that negotiation occurs. Intercultural interactions are the result of comparable negotiations with members of other groups; intercul- tural communication is the vehicle through which those negotiations occur. Cultural diversity is thus “a mechanism for organizing the most productive dia- logue between meaningful pasts and doable futures” (UNESCO, 2002, p. 11). Values, beliefs, and attitudes key aspects of culture, underlie all communication with others, whether within a culture or between members of diff erent cultures. One possible distinction suggests values are understood to be true or false; beliefs are assumed to be good or bad; and attitudes refer to in- dividual characteristics such as curiosity and interest in others (Condon & Yousef, 1975). Values, beliefs and attitudes are most often taken for granted, not normally questioned, simply accepted by members of a cultural group as baseline assumptions rarely made explicit, learned during childhood and assumed to be obvious truths by adults. Substantial interactional diffi culties occur when participants discover their as- sumptions diff er, leading to misunderstandings and confl icts even during well-intentioned intercultural dialogues or interactions. Attitudes relevant to in- tercultural competences include: respect, empathy, open-mindedness, curiosity, risk-taking, fl exibility, and tolerance of ambiguity5. In the same vein, UN- ESCO lays stress on the common values, deep inter- actions and cross-cultural borrowings that have taken place among diff erent cultural and spiritual tradi- tions, whether during the past or continuing today, and the need to foster reciprocal knowledge among these various traditions in order to achieve respect for pluralism, respect for beliefs and convictions, and to serve as the basis for creating harmony in pluricul- tural and pluri-religious societies. Intercultural describes what occurs when members of two or more diff erent cultural groups (of whatever size, at whatever level) interact or infl uence one an- other in some fashion, whether in person or through various mediated forms. Included in a broad defi ni- tion of the term would be international political or economic interactions, when members from two or12 - Intercultural Competences more countries interact or infl uence one another in some fashion. However, since it is again a logistical impossibility for entire cultures to interact, even po- litical entities such as nation-states must rely upon individuals to represent their interests in interactions with other individuals, representing in their turn oth- er, comparable entities. A further complication: no human belongs to only a single culture – everyone has multiple identities, multiple cultural affi liations, whether or not everyone else is aware of all the shad- ow selves standing behind the self relevant to, and thus made visible in, any specifi c interaction. While multiple selves each play signifi cant roles in diff erent contexts or at diff erent stages of life, they may also ex- ist simultaneously. An extended family, neighbors in the same apartment complex, work colleagues, peo- ple who play a particular sport, pursue a particular hobby, practice a particular religion, or those whose parents came from the same geographic location: all these clusters develop into subcultures or co-cultures 6– that is, they all have their own ways of being in the world, their own expectations, traditions, and goals. So even what appears to be intracultural communi- cation (that is, communication between members of the same cultural group) frequently requires substan- tial intercultural competences of participants. Communication often said to be a message conveyed from one person to another, more adequately should be viewed as joint construction (or co-construction) of meaning (Galanes & Leeds-Hurwitz, 2009). Com- munication includes language as well as nonverbal behavior, which includes everything from use of sounds (paralanguage), movements (kinesics), space (proxemics), and time (chronemics), to many aspects of material culture (food, clothing, objects, visual de- sign, architecture) and can be understood as the active aspect of culture. Culture may be understood as the more static, noun form – knowledge, behavior, lan- guage, values, beliefs, and attitudes learned by social actors through experience from the time they are chil- dren. Communication then would be the more active, verb form – the act of transferring cultural knowledge, behavior, language, values, beliefs, and attitudes from one generation of social actors to the next (Leeds-Hur- witz, 1989). Competence refers to having suffi cient skill, ability, knowledge, or training to permit appropriate behav- ior, whether words or actions, in a particular context7. Competence includes cognitive (knowledge), func- tional (application of knowledge), personal (behav- ior) and ethical (principles guiding behavior) com- ponents, thus the capacity to know must be matched to the capacity to speak and act appropriately in con- text; ethics and consideration of human rights infl u- ence both speech and actions. Typically competence does not depend on any one single skill, attitude, orIntercultural Competences - 13 use as well in order to achieve communicative compe- tence. What can be said to whom, in what context and with what connotations is never a simple matter. But this complex understanding must be the goal. Language is both the generic term for the human ability to turn sounds into speech as a form of com- munication, and a specifi c term for the way in which members of any one group speak to one another. As with other forms of cultural diversity, scholars recog- nize that language can serve as a vehicle to separate people, but at the same time, the mere existence of multiple languages provides a superb repertoire of diff erent solutions to what are often the same prob- lems, diff erent vocabularies for similar (or diff erent) experiences, diff erent expressions of ideas and values and beliefs. Th ere are two parts to any utterance: what is said, and what is left unsaid. Th e unsaid in- cludes what is assumed, what is implicit for a group of speakers, what is taken for granted to the point that remains unquestioned. Bridging the gap between the said and the unsaid requires making implicit as- sumptions explicit, an essential component of inter- cultural competences. Language serves only not as a channel for communication, although of course it is that: language also must be recognized as shaping our experiences, ideas, and understandings. Any idea is sayable in any language, ultimately and with enough eff ort, but not all concepts may be described equally easily in all languages. What is important to mem- bers of one group most often can be said quickly, in few words of that language; what has not yet become relevant to a particular group of speakers frequently takes many words to explain, and may be cumber- some, or insuffi ciently precise. A concept found in one language and culture often comes to be under- stood in another by metaphor if not by extended de- scription. For example, when fi rst introduced to au- tomobiles, the Achumawi, a Native American group in California, named the car battery hadatsi, a word previously used to describe the heart of a human be- ing (de Angulo, 1950). Th us do people interpret the new in light of prior experiences. Th e words people use matter, and the eff ort to discover or invent words to bridge gaps in understanding plays type of knowledge, instead engaging a complex set of skills, attitudes, and knowledge. Skills typically men- tioned as most directly relevant to an understanding of intercultural competences include: observation, listening, evaluating, analyzing, interpreting, relating (including personal autonomy), adaptability (includ- ing emotional resilience), the ability to be non-judg- mental, stress management, metacommunication (the ability to communicate about communication, moving outside an interaction to discuss what has oc- curred or will yet occur; Leeds-Hurwitz, 1989), and creative problem resolution. (UNESCO’s 2012 EFA Global Monitoring Report entitled Youth and Skills: Putting education to work proposes three sets of skills: foundation skills, refering to the most elemental, in- cluding literacy and numeracy, are a prerequisite for acquiring the other two sets; transferable skills, which include the ability to solve problems, communicate ideas and information eff ectively, be creative, show leadership and conscientiousness and demonstrate entrepreneurial capabilities; and technical and voca- tional skills, referring to the specifi c technical know- how required in diff erent settings)8. A list of attitudes relevant to intercultural competences has been speci- fi ed earlier (under values, beliefs, and attitudes). Types of relevant knowledge include: cultural self-awareness, cultural other awareness, culture-specifi c knowledge, culture-general knowledge, sociolinguistic awareness (of such topics as codeswitching or moving between languages or dialects), the cultural adaptation pro- cess, ethnocentrism, ethnorelativism, culture shock, and reverse culture shock.9 Communicative competence implies both under- standing and producing appropriate words and other communication forms in ways that will make sense not only to the speaker/actor but also to others. Hymes (1967, 1972, 1984) pointed out that knowing how to put words into a sentence is only the start of com- munication; speakers must also gain familiarity with a wide variety of social and cultural contexts, so they will know when to produce utterances at appropriate times, taking into account a host of contextual factors. Learning to communicate appropriately with cultural others requires far more than learning the basic gram- mar rules for a language; one must learn the rules of14 - Intercultural Competences a part in how people display intercultural competences. Multilingualism (communicative competence in mul- tiple languages) and translation (conveying the same idea through diff erent languages) are thus obvious re- quirements for intercultural dialogue, and indications of intercultural competences, enriching each group’s understanding of the other(s) as well of themselves. Equally, monolingualism is a barrier to acquiring inter- cultural competences since only one of the participants in an intercultural interaction undertakes the diffi cult work of understanding the other’s language. Merely learning to understand another language opens a win- dow to another culture’s world, whether or not a full set of intercultural communicative competences is ever mastered. Dialogue is a form of communication (most often linguistic, though not always) occurring when par- ticipants, having their own perspectives, yet recognize the existence of other, diff erent perspectives, remain- ing open to learning about them. As such, dialogue stands in contrast to alternate forms such as “soli- logue” (where one speaker presents to one or more others, and the communication is unidirectional), or debate (essentially, serial monologues, with the goal of presenting one’s viewpoint to others, not seriously listening to, considering and responding to, theirs). Dialogue requires both speaking (about one’s own ideas, interests, passions, concerns) and listening (to those of others), but even more, dialogue entails “re- maining in the tension between standing your own ground and being profoundly open to the other” (Pearce & Pearce, 2004, p. 46). Dialogue requires com- prehension but not necessarily agreement, although listening to diverse viewpoints most often takes as its eventual goal compromise between competing posi- tions, collaborative planning, and problem solving. Dialogue may be only the beginning point for reaching agreement or compromise, but without it, participants have little possibility of either. Th e goals of sustainable development and social cohesion require that cultur- ally diverse groups learn to engage in intercultural dia- logue. Luckily, intercultural dialogue is both learnable and teachable, for “to engage in dialogue is to engage in a learning conversation” (Spano, 2001, p. 269). In Pearce and Littlejohn’s term, dialogue is “transforma- tive conversation” (1997, p. 215). Penman suggests any dialogue requires “a commitment to mutual collabora- tion” (2000, p. 92). To recall, “dialogue” derives from the Greek term “dia-logos”, widely mistranslated and wrongly understood because of a confusion between “duo” and “dia”. It does not mean a conversation be- tween two persons or two groups, but an acceptance, by two participants or more, that they will compare and contrast their respective arguments. Th e prefi x “dia-” is equivalent to the Latin “trans-”, connoting a considerable shift in space, time, substance or thought. Dialogue is not designed to lead to a defi nitive conclu- sion. It is a constantly-renewed means of re-initiating the thinking process, of questioning certainties, and of progressing from discovery to discovery. Intercultural dialogue specifi cally refers to dia- logues occurring between members of diff erent cultural groups. Intercultural dialogue assumes that participants agree to listen to and understand multiple perspectives, including even those held by groups or individuals with whom they disagree. As phrased by UNESCO, inter- cultural dialogue encourages readiness to question well- established value-based certainties by bringing reason, emotion and creativity into play in order to fi nd new shared understandings. By doing so, it goes far beyond mere negotiation, where mainly political, economic and geo-political interests are at stake. It is a process that comprises an open and respectful exchange of views be- tween individuals and groups with diff erent ethnic, cul- tural, religious and linguistic backgrounds and heritage, on the basis of mutual understanding and respect. Ac- cording to the Public Dialogue Consortium, dialogue is “inclusive rather than exclusive…the freedom to speak is joined to the right to be heard and the responsibility to listen…diff erences are treated as resources rather than barriers…confl ict is handled collaboratively rather than adversarially…and decisions are made creatively rather than defensively.”10 Th ese characteristics would serve as a good beginning for any intercultural dialogue. Although common usage refers to cultures interacting, or hold- ing dialogues, it is actually individuals who interact and who hold intercultural dialogues, not the cultures them- selves; similarly, it is individuals who manage their in-Intercultural Competences - 15 teractions more or less interculturally competently. Th e complication is that one person in an interaction cannot be interculturally competent alone – for interaction is a process co-constructed jointly by all participants. If to- gether participants manage well, then together they have been interculturally competent; if not, then it is simply inaccurate to say one of them was competent and the other incompetent; rather, all must admit that together they were incompetent. Th is notion of co-construction, of jointly making our interactions with others, rests at the heart of any intercultural encounter. Each encounter is about making something, creating something, jointly with at least one other person, and so the process of in- teraction must serve as focus. In any case, intercultural dialogue is the fi rst step to taking advantage of diff er- ent cultural traditions and histories to expand the list of possible solutions to common problems. Intercultural dialogue is thus an essential tool in the eff ort to resolve intercultural confl icts peacefully, and a precondition for cultivating a culture of peace. Universality, refers to those elements common to all cultures – such as having a language, or having values and beliefs. Th ere is, of course, a tightrope to walk be- tween assuming universality and respecting the inevita- ble cultural diff erences between groups. Appiah (2006) proposes the defi nition of cosmopolitanism as “univer- sality plus diff erence” (p. 151), thus bringing together several seemingly contradictory concepts. Cultural rights refer to the rights of individuals to embrace a cul- ture disposing unique elements, diff erent from those of any other culture, and are an “enabling environment for cultural diversity” (UNESCO, 2002, p. 13). Cultural rights are an integral part of human rights; they have been a central part of the international agenda since the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights and were further reinforced by the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966. More recently, the 2001 UNESCO Declaration on Cultural Diversity recognized the right of all persons “to partici- pate in the cultural life of their choice and conduct their own cultural practices, subject to respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms” (Art. 5). In specifi c cases, and especially in relation to indigenous peoples, cultural rights refers to the group’s right to control their own heritage or knowledge, as with traditional ethnobotanical knowledge sometimes exploited by multinational companies without compensation to the bearers of that knowledge (Buck & Hamilton, 2011; Greene, 2004).16 - Intercultural Competences Intercultural citizenship refers to a new type of citi- zen, the one required for the new global village. Tra- ditionally, a citizen had certain responsibilities and rights in relationship to a political body, such as a city, state, or country. But today, in keeping with the shrinking world, and understanding of universality, a new form of intercultural citizenship becomes rel- evant. Just as competent citizens engage in activities that help and do not hinder their own cities, states, and countries, competent intercultural citizens must take into account, and show respect for, a continually expanding geopolitical and sociocultural context for their words, deeds, and beliefs. Taking into account the impact of one’s words, deeds, and beliefs on those who reside in other cities, states, and countries, has become an essential element of behaving responsibly in the modern world. Intercultural citizenship relies upon conciliating multiple identities and contexts simultaneously, assumes the ability to engage in in- tercultural dialogues respecting the rights of cultural others, and ideally becomes one step toward promot- ing peace. Intercultural competences refer to having adequate relevant knowledge about particular cultures, as well as general knowledge about the sorts of issues arising when members of diff erent cultures interact, holding receptive attitudes that encourage establishing and maintaining contact with diverse others, as well as hav- ing the skills required to draw upon both knowledge and attitudes when interacting with others from dif- ferent cultures. One way to divide intercultural com- petences into separate skills is to distinguish between: savoirs (knowledge of the culture), savoir comprendre (skills of interpreting/relating), savoir apprendre (skills of discovery/interaction), savoir etre (attitudes of curi- osity/openness), and savoir s’engager (critical cultural awareness), as Byram (1997, 2008) has done (see dis- cussion in Holmes, 2009). Substantial research has al- ready been devoted to sorting out these basic elements of intercultural competences by researchers across the disciplines (Byram, 1997; Chen & Starosta, 1996; Guilherme, 2000; Deardorff , 2009). Th e goal must be to build upon and ultimately move beyond exist- ing work, providing a broader theoretical framework for understanding and expanding upon that initial set of ideas. To account for the complex interrelations of so many elements, the term is most often used in the plural form: either “competences” or “competencies” depending on the country where discussion originates. Sometimes, intercultural interactions go well: partici- pants listen to and understand one another, at times even leading to agreement about ideas or actions. At other times intercultural interactions go badly, leading to misunderstanding, arguments, and confl ict, even war. One necessary intercultural competence becomes the ability to discuss such diffi cult and critical top- ics as values, beliefs and attitudes among members of multiple cultural groups in a way that does not lead to confl ict. At the heart of the multiple intercultural competences, then, lies intercultural communicativeIntercultural Competences - 17 competence (Hymes assumed this, but Byram (1997) is best known for the phrase). Social actors need to be able to produce meaningful speech and behaviors and to do so in ways that will be understood as relevant in context by other participants in an interaction. Hymes’ notion of communicative competence has been widely applied to language teaching due to the obvious need for students to learn not only how to put grammati- cally correct sentences together, but also to learn when to say what to whom (Canale & Swain, 1980; Celce- Murcia, 2007). Context has crucial infl uence over how language and behavior are interpreted, but this is the most confusing aspect to learn as an outsider to a group. And since the same behavior may have diff er- ent meanings within diff erent cultural groups, think- ing one’s words or actions will be interpreted in one way cannot prevent them from being understood quite diff erently. Pearce (1989) used the term cosmopolitan communication in describing interaction between in- dividuals having substantial intercultural communica- tive competence, arguing that: “when performed well – with high levels of social eloquence – cosmopolitan communication enables coordination among groups with diff erent, even incommensurate, social realities” (p. 169). Hannerz (1996) uses cosmopolitan with a similar connotation, but many others mean something quite diff erent by it (Coulmas, 1995). * * * Th e following terms have been less often used in dis- cussions of intercultural competences. Th ey are pre- sented here because they highlight aspects of intercul- tural competences that otherwise might be ignored, or give a name to something otherwise diffi cult to understand and discuss, and they will provide impor- tant vocabulary permitting examination of specifi c aspects of intercultural competences worthy of more attention than received to date. Intercultural literacy, which might be glossed as all the knowledge and skills necessary to the practice of intercultural competences, has become an essen- tial tool for modern life, parallel to the development of information literacy, or media literacy (Dragićević Šešić & Dragojević, 2011). Th e particular value of this phrasing is that, just as with these other forms of literacy, some active teaching or modeling must occur, though it need not occur as part of formal education. Shared experiences, conversations, and storytelling are among the ways in which members of a diverse group can come to understand one an- other. Following Luhmann (1990), it is important to acknowledge “the improbability of communication”, recognizing that the numerous diff erences between groups makes any understanding unlikely, and appre- ciating the times people can achieve understanding across cultural boundaries, rather than only noticing the occasions on which understanding fails. Some of the research on crossing disciplinary boundaries (Dillon, 2008; Gieryn, 1983; Postlethwaite, 2007), or the boundary objects used as tools when initiating boundary crossings (Star & Griesemer, 1989; Trom- pette & Vinck, 2009), should be relevant to facilitat- ing intercultural competences. Boundary objects are those retaining enough meaning across contexts that participants can use them to discuss otherwise slip- pery (or diff erently defi ned) concepts. Intercultural responsibility builds on under- standings of intercultural competence by considering the importance of related concepts such as intercul- tural dialogue, ethics, religion (including interfaith dialogue), and notions of citizenship. Guilherme introduced the concept, applied to professional and personal interactions in multicultural teams in organisational contexts (Guilherme, Keating & Hoppe, 2010). Holmes’ (2011) treatment of the term expands upon this concept to include the moral choices and values that inform how individuals en- gage with one another in intercultural encounters. Further, it accounts for and explores dimensions of religious identity and values as they guide commu- nication and rules for intercultural interaction. Th e conceptualization also embodies the notion of the responsible citizen, the person who displays critical cultural awareness in intercultural communication. Re exivity refers to the ability to step outside one’s own experiences in order to refl ect consciously upon them, considering what is happening, what it means, and how to respond (Steier, 1991). Cultural diversity provides members of any group the necessary insight18 - Intercultural Competences works best at a specifi c moment, in a specifi c context, and with specifi c others. One set of questions concerns whether and how participants learn to discuss with interactional partners what has occurred, refl ecting jointly upon experience in order to add a second layer of understanding. Another set of questions concern whether people improvise well or badly, whether they learn from those times when interactions go well, and whether they share with others what has been learned. Creativity is the most evenly distributed resource in the world. It is, indeed, our ability to imagine that gives us the resilience to adapt to diff erent ecosystems and to invent “ways of living together”, the term used by the World Commission on Culture and Development to describe culture. Th e resilience will help individuals and decision- makers to form and reform institutions of democratic governance, sociability and global interaction. Having acknowledged the range of possibilities across cultures, as well as the continuous nature of change, how else to respond but with creativity? And interactions with cultural others sparks creativity. It is always easiest to understand those who are most similar, yet always most enlightening to interact with those who are diff erent. Luckily, human nature encourages exploration of diff erence and learning for its own sake. In this regard, creativity becomes the wellspring of cultural diversity, which refers to the manifold ways in which the cultures of groups and societies fi nd expression, thus opening up new forms of dialogue, transforming viewpoints and creating links between individuals, societies and generations all around the world. In other terms creativity implies a constant process, supporting, amplifying and regenerating cultural diversity across time and space, so that it may continue to instill expressions with new meanings for our time and for our future generations (UNESCO, 2001, Art.1). Cultural shifting refers to the cognitive and behavioral capacity of an interculturally competent person to shift or switch language, behavior, or gestures according to his/her interlocutors and the larger context or situation11. Cultural shifting holds most direct relevance for those concepts conveying obvious meaning within one cultural context but requiring considerable explanation to those new to that context. Humor provides a that there is more than one way to do things; that their own assumptions are just that, their own, and not universal. It is natural that each culture teaches members that it does things in the best possible way, for who would want to belong to a culture that acknowledged other ways as better? Yet given the extent to which modernity brings cultures together, the ability to be refl exive, to step back and recognize one’s own traditions as but one possible solution to commonly faced human problems, has become essential. A related term proposed by Frye, transvaluation, refers to “the ability to look at contemporary social values with the detachment of one who is able to compare them in some degree with the infi nite vision of possibilities presented by culture” (1957, p. 348). Todorov fi rst tightened the defi nition: “ce retour vers soi d’un regard informé par le contact avec l’autre” [a refl ective look at oneself informed by contact with the other], and then went on to call for a “crossing of cultures” (1987, p. 17), arguing that transvaluation both demonstrates and brings about progress through the shift from the individual subject to a larger world. In other words, learning about others teaches not only about their cultures but prompts examination of one’s own. Liquidity, the term proposed by Bauman (2000) to describe the fl uid nature of modern life implies change as a central element of human experience. Liquidity proposes a state of near constant change, with consequences for the ability of individuals to cope with change. Many in the past assumed cultures to be static, although today scholars in many disciplines have demonstrated that all cultures change over time. Exposure to many groups and traditions provides evidence of change over time, demonstrating as well that change in itself should neither be valued nor feared. As applied to intercultural competences, liquidity alludes to the fl exibility with which competent participants manage their interactions. Multiple identities, contexts, goals and assumptions must all be considered and managed by interculturally competent participants engaging with one another. Such multiplicities entail a level of complexity diffi cult to accommodate, yet there is no choice, and so people must learn to manage, often improvising their responses in search of whatIntercultural Competences - 19 particularly good example of content requiring skill in cultural shifting, given the extensive understanding of cultural context required by non-group members to interpret what group members intend to be funny. Contextualization cues, Gumperz’ (1992) closely related phrase, describes the ways participants convey information guiding the interpretation of their own words and actions by others. Essentially, both cultural shifters and contextualization cues help to explain how social actors manage to understand one another on those occasions when they do. Of course, because both are culture specifi c, they frequently serve as a source of ambiguity in social interaction: speakers may think they have been quite clear, but those whose experience has been in another culture may not have understood even the denotation (basic, literal meaning) of a word or utterance, let alone all of the connotations (more subtle implications). Th us intercultural competences include the ability to anticipate when ambiguity may result in confusion. One solution provides an explanation in advance to avoid confusion, rather than engaging in repair work afterwards. Disposition, refers to the mind set progressively acquired through primary (family) and secondary (school) socialization. So dispositions are both personal and socially shared. For sociologists, socially shared dispositions are related to social class. While Bourdieu (1977) preferred to revamp the Latin term habitus (defi ned as principium ad actum in the scholastic tradition) to refer to embodied categories of perception, appreciation and action, other contemporary social scientists developed formulas like “ dispositions + context = practices” (Lahire, 2012, p. 24), to stress that action is never produced in vacuo on the single basis of a disposition. A disposition is not a causal trigger, always being mediated through a particular context. Th us there is no simple “intercultural disposition,” be it xenophobic or xenophilic. On the one hand, there is always a context to fi lter, diff ract or amplify the disposition; on the other, there is always a possibility of a tertiary socialization (e.g., through media), which reshapes the disposition. As a result of this perspective, intercultural education should be encouraged, at all ages. Semantic availability, proposed by Hempel (1965), describes the plasticity of ideas: when a con- cept is dimly understood, but not clear; pre-emer- gent, not yet fully formed; having a word at the tip of one’s tongue, except that the word has not yet20 - Intercultural Competences glect of the fact that cultures evolve constantly, able to combine tradition and innovation in unique ways when confronted with unprecedented situations. Th e important debate should not focus on the preserva- tion of cultures construed as immutable monoliths, nor on change confused with an irremediable destruc- tion of their past and memory, but on how cultures can preserve room for resilience, that is their endog- enous capacity to organize a debate between tradition and change. Since change imposed from outside is cultural hegemony, not creativity, resilience should be explored as a culturally authentic path to modernity. Resilience has been discussed at the individual level (Cyrulnik, 2009) and linked to “‘hybridity,’ fl exibil- ity, and creativity” (Bird, 2009) and to “capacity de- velopment” (Sigsgaard, 2011) at the group level. * * * Many languages have specialized vocabulary used to describe aspects of the interrelationships be- tween individuals and groups, and of course, many cultures have terms that imply how people should treat others, e.g., guanxi, or relationship building, is important in Chinese communication, while in Maori, whanau, or family, denotes being together, sharing a community and supporting one another. Two such terms are introduced at greater length be- low. Th ese (and many others) should be brought into the glossary of key concepts as they identify ideas not traditionally used in discussing intercultural dialogue or competences or such core values as human rights, but which facilitate that conversation. In requesting the regional reports (cited in note 1), UNESCO re- cognized the importance of understanding this con- cept from multiple perspectives. Ubuntu, an African word referring to a philosophy of human interconnectedness and relationship, serves as both an ethical ideal and an aspect of southern African identity. “Th e Xhosa proverb, ubuntu ngumuntu ngabantu, which translates roughly as ‘a person is only a person through other people,’ encapsulates the philosophy of ubuntu. Ubuntu is not just a commendable quality of a human being or a set of values and practices, but it is the very essence been invented in that language. Th is notion is com- plemented by Bateson’s (1979) concept of warm ideas, referring to ideas still incomplete, in the pro- cess of being formed. Bateson’s insight was that ideas should be maintained in this condition until they could be distilled, rather than committing them to permanence too quickly. Such discussions are diffi - cult because speakers are used to treating thoughts as fi nished, but he found the eff ort worthwhile. Blumer had a related idea: sensitizing concepts “suggest di- rections along which to look” rather than “providing prescriptions of what to see” as defi nitive concepts do (1954, p. 7). As with warm ideas, sensitizing con- cepts provide a point of departure, a beginning only (Bowen, 2006). Conviviality is the term Illich provided for “autono- mous and creative intercourse among persons, and the intercourse of persons with their environment… in any society, as conviviality is reduced below a certain level, no amount of industrial productivity can eff ec- tively satisfy the needs it creates among society’s mem- bers” (1973, p. 24). Conviviality does not just appear of its own volition: it must be established as a specifi c goal, and encouraged in a variety of ways. Convivi- ality is both made possible through, and contributes to, the sharing of social worlds, whether these be the organizations in which people work or the neighbor- hoods in which they live. Managing interactions in these various social worlds does not require shared values, beliefs, attitudes, but only shared curiosity, in- terest and tolerance. Conviviality ultimately changes our perception of the nature of social relationships between individuals and groups, coming close to an Asian-centric worldview valuing relationality, circu- larity and harmony, thus emphasizing interconnect- edness and interdependence between people above individuality (Miike, 2003). Resilience is a key characteristic to consider when addressing cultures in their handling of tradition and modernity. In many debates, the idea that traditions should be preserved or respected is equated to an attempt at resisting the winds of change blown by modernity. But such a view is inaccurate in its ne-Intercultural Competences - 21 of being human when recognizing the humanity of others. Moreover, personhood is constituted through ethical relations with others. To say that someone has ubuntu is the highest form of praise. Th e concept of ubuntu simultaneously describes what it is to be a person (human-ness) and it is instructive of an ethical way of being (humane-ness). Becoming ethical is the very essence of being human and it is integral to the wellbeing of both the individual and to the community” (Steyn, 2009, p. 18). Ubuntu thus provides one culture’s idea about the ways humans are ultimately connected, and posits reciprocal relationships as a valued goal. Th e Japanese concept Uchi-soto  provides a way to describe how group membership changes across situations and over time by providing an important distinction diff erentiating those who belong to the group (uchi) from others (soto).12 According to Japanese social codes, this has a strong impact on language use, notably in terms of politeness. Th e in-group shows humility, as the out-group deserves appropriate signs of respect. For instance, -san is a very common suffi x to express respect, e.g. “Suzukisan” or “Miyekosan”. But one will not use -san in talking about family members, or colleagues, with people outside (in sign of modesty – uchi vs soto), although participants use it in the in-group with true respect. Equally, while talking about a child, spouse, or colleague, casual deprecations (such as “stupid” or “immature”) should not be understood as signs of disrespect or insults but only evidence of familiarity. A related concept, honne- tatemae  , refers to the social expectation that everyone will restrain themselves from expressing their true feelings (honne), instead acting and behaving in socially expected ways (tatemae, facade). Honne refers to what is felt internally or stated privately; tatemae to what is stated or displayed publicly. As with uchi-soto, distinction between in-group and out-group becomes relevant, and consideration of context and situation crucial. Everyone attends to context in order to avoid confl icts and maintain harmony with others in that context (demonstrating the spirit of wa) using these and other social codes to clearly display the art of being Japanese. As related to intercultural competence, these concepts embody the assumption that appropriate behavior is situational. Gaining intercultural competence includes learning to be fl exible, and to respect the diff erent varieties of fl exibility expected across cultural groups.22 - Intercultural Competences IV. A VISUAL CONCEPTUALIZATION The key concepts described in the preceding section have been presented individually for clarity’s sake, but concepts do not stand alone; rather, they must be understood in relation to one another as a set. Th e fol- lowing “Intercultural Competences Tree” attempts to off er a symbolic view of intercultural competences as an organic system of concepts. In this image of a tree, all concepts are distinct while nurtured by the same intel- lectual and moral sap. As was the case for defi nitions of terms, this visual conceptualization is put forth as but one of many possible ways to show relationships be- tween these ideas. Th e central concepts – cultural diver- sity, intercultural dialogue and human rights – are best understood as parts of a whole, with numerous other concepts supporting them, most signifi cantly culture and communication. Intercultural competences (in- cluding not only the knowledge, skills and attitudes so often mentioned, but also all of the new concepts pre- sented in the prior section) are an essential response to the existence of cultural diversity (linked closely to the existence of culture generally but also to the increasing diversity of cultures). Intercultural competences can be understood as resources put to work during intercultural dialogue (relying upon the human ability to use vari- ous forms of communication, including most especially language and dialogue). And human rights both require and result from holding intercultural dialogues. Th e re- lationship is established by the UNESCO Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions, which affi rms: “cultural diversity can be protected and promoted only if human rights and fundamental freedoms…are guaranteed” (2005, Art. 10A). Th e new concepts presented in the prior sec- tion still can best be described as warm ideas – that is, while it is clear they have relevance to this discussion, their exact signifi cance and interrelations have not yet been solidifi ed. Th erefore, they are shown in the Inter- cultural Competences Tree, but with more exact rela- tionships between them not yet illustrated. Th e Tree has Culture and Communication as its roots, Cultural Diversity, Human Rights and Intercultural Dialogue as its trunk; and fi ve operational steps as the branches (see p.23). Th e leaves represent the various manners in which the intercultural competences can be understood or articulated in concrete contexts. V. OPERATIONAL PLAN The operational plan to be presented in the following pages builds upon all these concepts, and so is de- picted in the visual conceptualization as branches on the trunk of the tree. No match is intended between a spe- cifi c branch and the theoretical concepts appearing clos- est to it – all concepts should be understood as having at least potential relevance at all operational steps. Having a set of concepts as a framework for how they relate together provide a good start only. Concepts must be applied in some fashion, made operational, put to use. Following are fi ve ways to put the key concepts just presented to work in the service of intercultural competences. Th ese fi ve steps (represented here as branches) are complementary: no one alone is suffi cient and all are essential. Th e greatest amount of attention to date has been granted to the fi rst step, clarifying, but intercultural competences also must be actively taught, promoted, enacted, in order to play a role in a wide range of contexts: in formal as well as non-formal education, and in social institutions of all sorts – political, cultural, or economic – and some potential applications will be described here. Specifi c universities as well as the academic community at large have been responsible for most of the work at the fi rst step, clarifying ideas. Various national and international bodies have begun to take action at the other four steps with a diff erent wording including but not limited to: National Commissions for UNESCO, UNESCO Clubs, the United Nations University, UNESCO Goodwill Ambassadors and Artists for Peace, UNESCO Category I and II Institutes, Council of Europe, and even many youth associations. Th is section also presents ideas about what is required to support the spread of intercultural competences, including securing adequate funding and institutional facilities. Again, some of the organizations just listed have already begun this process, but more will be required.Intercultural Competences - 23 Roots: Culture (Identity, Values, Attitudes, Beliefs, etc.) and Communication (Language, Dialogue, Nonverbal behavior, etc.) Trunk: Cultural Diversity, Human Rights, Intercultural Dialogue Branches: Operational steps (Clarifying, Teaching, Promoting, Supporting and Enacting Intercultural Competences) Leaves: Intercultural Responsibility, Intercultural Literacy, Resilience, Cultural Shifting, Intercultural Citizenship, Conviviality, Re exivity, Creativity, Liquidity, Contextualization Cues, Transvaluation, Ubuntu, Semantic Availability, Warm Ideas, Skills, Uchi Soto, Multilingualism, Disposition, Emotions, Knowledge, Translation, Intercultural Communicative Competence. Some of the leaves have been left free so that this Tree which is very much alive, can be complemented upon the rich diversity of contexts available worldwide. Intercultural Responsibility Intercultural Communicative Competence Multilingualism Teaching Intercultural Competences Clarifying Intercultural Competences Enacting Intercultural Competences Promoting Intercultural Competences Supporting Intercultural Competences Uchi Soto Ubuntu Skills Translation Disposition Identity Values Attitudes Beliefs Language Dialogue Nonverbal behavior Emotions Culture Communication Knowledge Semantic Availability Warm Ideas Transvaluation Liquidity Creativity Contextualization Cues Re exivity Conviviality Intercultural Citizenship Cultural Shifting Intercultural Literacy Resilience CULTURAL DIVERSITY HUMAN RIGHTS INTERCULTURAL DIALOGUE The Intercultural Competences Tree, a visual conceptualization24 - Intercultural Competences Examples help to turn a theoretical discussion into a pragmatic one, and so concrete examples are provided for steps 2-5. Th is report itself serves as an example of step 1. A fi nal example demonstrating good practice integrated across several steps accompanies the conclusion. As not all good intentions have good results, the follow- ing cautionary tale may help to warn of inherent com- plications. Despite the Croatian National Programme for the Roma (described in the Council of Europe’s Compendium) being specifi cally designed to increase multiculturalism and protect Romani rights, the pro- ject design did not adequately consider that individuals have multiple identities. As a result, the policy has been critiqued for disregarding women and women’s issues (Open Society Institute, 2005). To summarize the issue briefl y, since women are subordinate in traditional Ro- mani culture, strengthening the culture diminishes the gains possible by individual women within the larger society. Because the primary goal of the policy was to enhance cultural pluralism and intercultural dialogue, this example highlights the diffi culties caused even by good intentions if program design omits consideration of the complex and multiple nature of identity. 1. Clarifying Intercultural Competences Understanding intercultural competences serves as the fi rst operational step, and everything in this report is intended to contribute to clarifying understanding. But one report (even given all the research and publications that preceded it, by a wide range of scholars) cannot be suffi cient: yet more work remains. Synthesizing research from multiple disciplines and cultures into a coherent whole requires ongoing eff ort because such research continues within a variety of disciplines. Just as one defi nition is inadequate (and inappropriate), so one disciplinary approach, or investigations prepared by scholars based in a single country, will be insuffi cient to providing a full understanding of a complex topic. Tools to assess and evaluate intercultural competences can be refi ned. Research fi ndings should be far more widely disseminated, and made accessible to a broader public. Deardorff (2011) summarizes the fi ve regional re- ports prepared for UNESCO (Dragićević Šešić & Dragojević, 2009; Grimson, 2011; Holmes, 2009; Steyn, 2009; Youssef, 2011). Her fi nal list of skills and competences understood as the minimal requirements to attain intercultural competences includes: • Respect (“valuing of others”); • Self-awareness/identity (“understanding the lens through which we each view the world”); • Seeing from other perspectives/world views (“both how these perspectives are similar and diff erent”); • Listening (“engaging in authentic intercultural dialogue”); • Adaptation (“being able to shift temporarily into another perspective”); • Relationship building (forging lasting cross-cul- tural personal bonds); • Cultural humility (“combines respect with self- awareness”). Building on these minimum requirements of intercul- tural competence, the additional concepts discussed in this paper form an even broader, more elaborate set of skills and competences that will contribute to preserv- ing and promoting cultural diversity and human rights. Similarly summarizing the regional reports, Deardorff proposes two primary social institutions as the obvi- ous ways to address intercultural competences: educa-Intercultural Competences - 25 > Coordinate academic eff orts providing fi rst, some guidance so that topics relevant to in- tercultural competences receive attention. Secondly, synthesize what is learned through such activities as conferences and publica- tions, so insights gained by individual re- searchers can be made readily available for use in the later operational steps described here. One group, center, or organization needs to be assigned responsibility for synthesizing what is known and helping to map out re- maining work, most likely through holding periodic conferences of interested parties. > Refi ne current tools for assessment and evalua- tion of intercultural competences. In doing so, at least the following aspects are essential: who measures; what is measured; with which instru- ments, tools, and criteria; using which units; and which uncertainties. Fantini (2009) pro- vides a long list of techniques to be used in as- sessing intercultural competence once decisions have been made about who will measure what. > Publish research fi ndings in non-traditional as well as traditional venues, including not only articles and books intended for schol- ars, but also at least some materials aimed at reaching a wider public. Th is is critical because knowledge of intercultural compe- tion systems (at the individual level) and legal systems (at the societal and organizational levels). Th ese fi gure prominently in the concrete steps provided not only immediately below, but also throughout all fi ve levels. Again, they are not suffi cient in themselves, and so other social institutions (including the media, and the cultural and political instances) are mentioned as well. Ideally intercultural competences should permeate all social institutions. Speci c steps to be taken: > Expand current eff orts to integrate intercultural competence into many disciplines ensuring that the topic receives continued investigation. Utilize a core group of international and mul- tidisciplinary experts to investigate previously established key concepts, which need expan- sion within an intercultural competence frame, but far more critically, ensure development of the new theoretical concepts introduced above. Existing interdisciplinary research into topics related to intercultural competence as studied by a wide range of disciplines, such as Interna- tional Relations, Psychology, Communication, Anthropology, Sociology, Philosophy, Cultural Studies, Humanities, Linguistics, Literature, Religious Studies, Political Economy, must be expanded.26 - Intercultural Competences tences has direct relevance beyond academia, and so the essential ideas must be distributed widely. Discussion of the other steps below present concrete suggestions for facilitating such distribution of ideas. > Collect striking examples of cases in which the cultural context is a key factor in the ef- fective exercise of universally recognized rights and freedoms, so as to highlight the cultural dimension of all rights and freedoms. > Map exchanges within and between minor- ity groups and between majority and minority communities, especially in the context of ‘glob- al cities’, in order to create informal networks of solidarity, and widely publicize such exchanges. > Study the diversity of intangible cultural herit- age as a source of examples of modes of demo- cratic governance based on the empowerment and participation of all communities. Intangi- ble heritage includes traditions inherited from prior generations, among which are events (life cycle rituals), special knowledge (which indig- enous plants are valuable for what purposes) and skills (how to weave traditional patterns). Understanding the intangible cultural heritage of other groups is both required for, and a re- sult of, intercultural dialogue, as such knowl- edge can increase respect for other ways of life. 2. Teaching Intercultural Competences After researchers come to conclusions about inter-cultural competences, what they learn must be widely shared. Typically intercultural competences are gained through a combination of experience, training, and self-refl ection. Despite the fact that much of what becomes intercultural competences can be acquired through personal experience, many programs have been designed to provide formal teaching or training, and they often help substantially. Understanding one’s own culture and understanding cultures as human constructions are both necessary steps in learning to cope intercultural interactions, and usually precede learning about other peoples, other cultures, other ways of being. However, learning is circular: there is no better way to discover the socially constructed na- ture of one’s own culture than to be faced with an- other culture having quite diff erent assumptions.13 Th e practice and learning of intercultural competences never ends but is a lifelong pursuit, evolving over time through the accumulation of experience, training, and thoughtful refl ection upon both (Deardorff , 2009; Dervin, 2010). At the very least, it is often possible to teach knowl- edge of others, and an attitude of respect for the beliefs and values of others, to the point of permitting others to hold diff erent truths to be self-evident. Recognition of diff erences serves as an essential beginning point for, without such recognition, understanding of the implications of diff erence cannot develop. Ultimately, the goal must be to teach concrete skills for success-Intercultural Competences - 27 ful interaction with members of diff erent cultures, the “intercultural communicative competence” described previously. Establishing a safe context in which peo- ple can ask naïve questions without the assumption of malice is a critical step. Developing a trusting re- lationship in which such questions can not only be asked but also answered takes time, repaying the eff ort through increased understanding. Often merely hold- ing intercultural dialogue suffi ces if understanding is achieved; agreement need not be the expected result. Sometimes groups that meet simply to learn about one another are successful; other times, establishing multicultural groups engaged in a common task works better, with acceptance of diff erence arising from joint eff ort rather than being the explicit focus. Since a di- verse group typically brings a wide range of knowledge and experiences, they often are successful in resolving problems. As described in UNESCO’s Guidelines on Intercul- tural Education (2006a), the study of international standard-setting instruments and other documents re- sulting from international conferences highlights the international community’s view on education relating to intercultural issues. A certain number of recurrent principles can be identifi ed that may guide interna- tional action in the fi eld of intercultural education: • Principle 1: Intercultural education respects the cultural identity of the learner through the pro- vision of culturally appropriate and responsive quality education for all. • Principle 2: Intercultural education provides every learner with the cultural knowledge, atti- tudes and skills necessary to achieve active and full participation in society. • Principle 3: Intercultural education provides all learners with cultural knowledge, attitudes and skills that enable them to contribute to respect, understanding and solidarity among individuals, ethnic, social, cultural and religious groups and nations. Th ese principles are directly related to the third pil- lar of education: “Learning to live together”, which consists in “developing an understanding of other people and an appreciation of interdependence – car- rying out joint projects and learning to manage con- fl icts - in a spirit of respect for the values of pluralism, mutual understanding and peace. Th is is also closely related to the provisions of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which mentions that the aim of education should be to “promote understanding, tol- erance and friendship among all nations, racial and religious groups”. Speci c steps to be taken: > Incorporate intercultural competences in all lev- els of formal, informal and non formal educa- tion systems to facilitate learning of intercultural competences and gain fl exibility in interactions with cultural others, even with education as but one part of the solution. Prejudice de- pends in large part on a lack of accurate knowledge about, and experience with, a wide range of cultures; education solves that problem. Humans learn by creating classifi ca- tion systems, and so prejudice and stereotypes28 - Intercultural Competences can sometimes be one result when minimal new knowledge leads to categorizing people over simply, but further knowledge gains should lead to greater experience and sophistication of understanding, and thus less prejudice. Students can be taught not only content information about a wide range of cultures, but also a general openness to diff erence. Teachers play a particularly important role then, both in terms of choosing what they teach, and in modeling curiosity about, and thoughtful crea- tive responses to, diff erent cultures. Learning to speak multiple languages obviously helps stu- dents learn about multiple cultures (as in the curriculum proposed by Beacco et al, 2010). > Shift the terms used to discuss interculturality in order to modify the ideas of those who use them by explicitly teaching new terminology. Not only the key concepts discussed earlier are useful here, but also metaphors used to describe interaction between groups (Halstead, 2007). > Provide expertise to existing pedagogical cent- ers/teacher training institutes on intercultural competences, so to equip teachers with sup- portive content and relevant techniques. Cur- rent teacher education must be expanded to prepare the students for life as active, respon- sible citizens in democratic societies as well as citizens of the world, aware and available to address global issues (e.g. loss of peace, destruction of natural and cultural heritage), thus, taking advantage of diversity and turn- ing it into an invaluable asset for a better fu- ture. Given the availability of information and communication technologies (ICTs), new media, and social networking, some support- ive activities can occur online, especially those connecting teachers and classrooms into wider global communities, to learn, un-learn and re- learn. > Support classroom learning by developing and improving manuals, curricula, and textbooks both for the teachers and for their students in order to address cultural bias, intolerance, stere- otyping, discrimination and violence (Schissler, 2009). One part of the solution involves in- structing students and staff in confl ict manage- ment; another expands teaching into areas of global history, nonviolent communication, hu- man rights and tolerance; as well as establishing intergenerational dialogues. Th e next genera- tion requires knowledge of a far wider sense of the history of the world than is typically taught in order to discover both similarities and dif- ferences across cultural groups. UNESCO’s History of Humanity series (de Laet, et al, 1994- 2008) was specifi cally designed for this purpose, and should be widely implemented. In addi- tion, the Programme of Action for a Culture of Peace and Non-Violence has already proposed using the UNESCO Associated Schools Project Network to “develop a model interactive edu- cational programme to stop violence involving schools (including students, teachers and par- ents) the media and professional bodies (UN- ESCO, 2011). > Internationalize schooling as an easy way to increase knowledge about other cultures, in- cluding any and all of the following: inter- nationalization of the curriculum, teaching foreign languages, teacher mobility, student exchanges, enriching the curriculum with in- tercultural and international content (such as sustainable resource development, since cul- tural assumptions infl uence interactions be- tween humans and the natural world); taking into account the diverse learning styles, life experiences, and cultural and linguistic diver- sity of students; as well as encouraging criti- cal thinking and a capacity for self-refl ection among students (so that they may consider their words and actions, and better handle themselves when faced with diversity, whether inside or outside the classroom). > Undertake a global comparative survey of edu- cational content and methods, including tradi- tional modes of transmission, with particularIntercultural Competences - 29 reference to the recognition and accommoda- tion of cultural diversity. > Support eff orts to identify and/or create oppor- tunities and facilities for culture-specifi c learn- ing in each educational system, making use of existing instruments such as UNESCO's EFA National Assessment Reports. > Adapt teaching methods to the requirements of the everyday life of learners, with the necessary support of educational policy-makers, educa- tional professionals at all levels and local com- munities, recognizing the cultural dimension as a central pillar of Education for Sustainable Development. > Develop relevant guidelines for the promotion of intercultural dialogue notably through the arts, based on the identifi cation of good prac- tices in arts education. > Incorporate the teaching of intercultural com- petences in programmes and initiatives on hu- man rights education, for instance within the context of the UN under the World Programme for Human Rights Education (2005-ongoing), as well as on intercultural education and educa- tion for global citizenship. > Implement other projects like “Developing Intercultural Competence Skills – a key chal- lenge to build a better future in South Eastern Europe,” to be co-implemented by UNESCO and the Alliance of Civilizations (AoC) in the framework of the AoC Regional Strategy in South Eastern Europe. Th is project will explore a range of teaching and learning strategies that can be used in developing students’ and teach- ers’ intercultural competences. Training semi- nars and opportunities for teachers will off er a cross-cultural dimension for educators and of- fi cials, providing a space for refl ection, mutual exchange, experiential learning and coopera- tion on joint projects related to intercultural competences and dialogue. > Reach out to those in a wide variety of profes- sions in order to apply intercultural competenc- es at an organization level. For example: health care workers, social/community workers, legal experts (human rights lawyers, judges), deci- sion makers, civic leaders and local authorities at national, regional and local levels, cultural and media professionals, youth leaders and or-30 - Intercultural Competences tence for their group; instead, everyone must become interculturally competent on their own behalf to sur- vive in today’s global society. Spreading ideas related to intercultural plurality, diversity and human rights more broadly will require using a wide range of media to dis- tribute and share ideas. It will require fostering aware- ness in media professionals of the positive contributions of intercultural understanding. Th e new social media (jointly known as Web 2.0), such as web-based forums, or wikis, provide new opportunities for crossing group boundaries and sharing information among diverse cultures given that they permit the active creation of content, rather than just the passive reading of content posted by others. Essentially, the goal must be to create a wide variety of open spaces, both online and face-to- face, in which to hold intercultural dialogues among in- numerable groups, even though the role of formal edu- cation is increasingly being challenged by the ICTs, the digital media and the diversifi cation and multiplication of sources of knowledge (often contradictory). Speci c steps to be taken: > Help to construct a widespread sense of com- mon community across disparate groups liv- ing near one another through community dia- logues. For example creating opportunities for storytelling across gender, ethnic, class, and generational lines takes advantage of the op- portunities provided by cultural diversity. Th is requires training of individuals, matched to the establishment of new organizations to develop, manage and maintain the process. Deliberate design of the structure of events that facilitate dialogue, as well as careful design of the process by which individuals and groups participate in the dialogue, are both signifi cant. Spano (2001) provides a detailed outline of how both were managed successfully in one particular commu- nity, creating a context within which intercul- tural dialogue was developed among competing groups with little history of cooperation. > Reach out to adults by providing family learn- ing contexts, as children are not the only ones who can be taught. Students bring what they ganizations, as well as business leaders. Essen- tially continuous professional development or lifelong learning, this sort of training assumes that even those beyond the reach of the tradi- tional classroom still have something to learn, and are still capable of learning. Th e Autobiography of Intercultural Encounters materials prepared by the Council of Europe (2009) were deliberately designed to help start intercultural dialogues, and thus improve intercultural competences; one set was especially shaped for younger learners for use in schools, but another is designed for adults, through informal education contexts. Participants in this exercise use refl exivity to describe one event or experience with someone diff erent from themselves, refl ecting upon their own feelings and experiences and taking into consideration those of others in the encounter, then share their stories as a way to both learn from their own past experiences and begin a process of dialogue with others. 3. Promoting Intercultural Competences Explicit teaching about intercultural competences will reach only some individuals and groups, yet everyone in the modern world needs to gain intercul- tural competence. From a pedagogical point of view, education refers to systems (formal or non-formal) that organize teaching and learning. But teaching cannot be automatically equated with learning. We can be taught and not learn. Likewise, we can learn without being taught, as we also learn on our own, or with peers. Learning, then, is about the acquisition of information, knowledge, skills and values. It happens in many dif- ferent and complementary ways, including educational systems. Learning, according to Gilles Deleuze, is fi rst and foremost about considering any matter, object or being as if emitting signals to decipher, to interpret. Intercultural dialogues, as collective learning processes, do not need to be held once a year at specially organ- ized events, with only the participants learning intercul- tural competences; rather, intercultural dialogues must become an everyday occurrence, among all the people interacting in a day. Similarly, a few individuals cannot be designated experts to manage intercultural compe-Intercultural Competences - 31 as confl ict-sensitive reporting and choice of im- ages, and particularly training young media professionals, could use the UNESCO Power of Peace Network, among other resources, to pro- mote intercultural competences. > Support recognition of and respect for knowl- edge (including traditional knowledge and the knowledge of indigenous peoples) that contrib- utes to safeguarding biodiversity and promot- ing sustainable development as another vehicle through which intercultural competences can be developed. Th is has the double advantage of providing opportunities for cultural contact and learning, but also for supporting sustainability of natural and cultural resources. > Elaborate a roadmap for global consciousness as one way to put the frequent expression “global village” into deliberate practice (UNESCO, 2011a). Current and future generations need to be encouraged to think not only about local contexts but also about the larger world in order to fi nd and shape their places in it. Th is is not only a matter of teaching in schools, although of course activity must begin there, but of promot- ing the development of a global consciousness at all levels of decision making. Th is will require preparation of support materials, and workshops designed to shape the way in which both chil- dren and adults, both women and men think, relate to, and approach the problems they face. > Create a digital library of major scientifi c and cultural landmarks in order to demonstrate humankind’s intercultural solidarity, taking into account available UNESCO documenta- tion (such as the General and Regional Histo- ries as described in UNESCO, 2011a). Again, these can be used in formal education contexts, but also should be made available more broad- ly to the general public. Particular emphasis should be paid to a truly global vision of his- tory, bringing the Arab-Muslim and Western worlds together, as intended by the Intercultural Vademecum programme, within the framework learn home to their parents, but such knowl- edge can and should be supplemented by of- ferings directly for those parents, and also for the adults in a community without children presently in school (such eff orts are typically termed “lifelong learning,” and the UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning provides one example). In terms of specifi c topics, teaching the management of cultural confl ict, and com- bating discrimination, are examples of ways to promote conviviality, and thus increase the intercultural competences of a population. Libraries are beginning to take on the role of providing a safe space in which to begin in- tercultural dialogues; this could be broadly ex- panded, and the multimedia options available more fully, frequently, and deliberately used. > Recognize the current importance of the vari- ous forms of new media, co-productions fos- tering dialogue between media professionals from diff erent cultures, particularly on sensi- tive issues combining intercultural dialogue, media information and literacy. For example, bringing journalists of diff erent countries to- gether to participate in training in such areas32 - Intercultural Competences of the UNESCO-UN Alliance of Civilizations cooperation (UNESCO, 2011a). > Encourage cultural sensitivity in the creation, production, distribution and consumption of various communication and information con- tent, thereby facilitating access, empowerment and participation. To this end, action should be taken to support the production and distribu- tion of innovative and diversifi ed audiovisual materials, taking account of local needs, con- tents and actors, and having recourse as appro- priate to public-private partnerships. > Assess the impact of ICT-driven changes on cultural diversity, with a view to highlighting good practices of multilingual access to written and audiovisual productions. Technology can only facilitate intercultural dialogues if the in- dividuals involved can understand one another. > Promote media and information literacy for all age groups in order to increase the ability of me- dia users to critically evaluate communication and cultural contents. Children are often the focus of attention, due to their presence within schools, but such populations as the elderly and the poor often lag behind in their adoption of new media tools. Dan Bar-On has developed a method of storytelling de- signed to bring together groups that have great diffi culty speaking with each other for clear and obvious historic reasons. He monitors these groups and follows a certain sequence in how people tell their story (moving from rage, acknowledgement of pain – one’s own pain as well as the pain of others – to eventual reconciliation. In the process, he uses storytelling as a way to bring people on opposite sides into dialogue by creating a safe space in which that conversation can occur. He uses storytelling to start par- ticipants on a journey together exploring their memories, bringing private experience into public conversations. Telling each other their stories becomes “a narrow bridge across the abyss” dividing them – stories provide only a start, but every solution requires a beginning (Bar-On, 2006, p. 25; Kutz, Wegner & Bar-On, 2000). 4. Enacting Intercultural Competences The fourth step applies what has been learned through practice. Th e practice of interculturalism must be- come part of the fabric of daily social life, not something demonstrated only during a conference, festival, or in school. Th e values, beliefs, and attitudes, as well as the knowledge and skills that jointly comprise intercultural competences are put to work in this stage of the pro- cess. Enacting intercultural competence includes taking advantage of the wide range of opportunities already or potentially provided by cultural organizations to cre- ate intercultural hubs within particular communities. Competence in intercultural interactions is gained not only through formal or non-formal teaching, though such is appropriate, but also through the activity of in- teracting with cultural others. Th us all eff orts to begin intercultural dialogues are tools enhancing intercultural competences, and all strengthen understanding of basic human rights. Speci c steps to be taken: > Enhance the intercultural competences of pub- lic and private cultural organizations by ensur- ing that their programs take into account cul- tural diversity. Public spaces such as museums can promote a context in which to share cultur- al experiences, not only through static exhibits, but also by organizing related activities. Like the libraries mentioned previously, museums are most often neutral, safe spaces in which to hold diffi cult conversations, and they have the advantage of already being well known to community members. For the museums and libraries facing reduced usage by a generation less likely to read paper copies of books or visit a physical display when they can see it online, holding intercultural dialogues helps to bring disaff ected community members back into their territory. Th is kind of approach will put strong emphasis on experiential rather than passive learning, involving members of mul- tiple communities in a common experience.Intercultural Competences - 33 > Support a wide range of civil organizations, such as those providing expressions of artistic collaboration and creativity (professional and amateur), all of which develop intercultural competences. For example, art, intercultural theatre, music, dance, pantomime, festivals, fairs all provide opportunities for members of diff erent cultural groups to speak for them- selves, expressing some of their ideas and ex- periences through a public platform, as a way to spark intercultural dialogues. Such contexts also promote the role of creativity, a fundamen- tal attribute both of innovation and of explora- tion of what is new and diff erent, thus leading to an increase in intercultural competences. One example would be Project Llull, adapting Th e Book of the Gentile and the Th ree Wise Men, a play written by Ramon Llull in the 13th cen- tury about Christianity, Judaism and Islam on the Iberian Peninsula, for international pres- entation today, thus using theatre as a way to spark intercultural conversations.14 > Use new media forms to educate a broad public about diversity and intercultural com- petences. Th e question is only to catch up to the possibilities, since new media are rapidly developing, and new uses for old media are expanding, daily. An innovative approach to spreading intercultural competences is to de- sign and distribute intercultural comics to children, taking advantage of the possibilities off ered not only current mass media but also by the many social and new media forms, as in the examples produced by Grupo Comu- nicar in Spain,15 or the innovative use of large interactive public screens to connect citizens of one country through acts of creativity con- structed jointly with citizens in another coun- try (Papastergiadis, 2006). Other possibilities include “e-notebooks on peace and intercul- tural dialogue” providing a readily accessible vehicle for young people around the world to use in sharing personal initiatives and experi- ences for everyday peace and dialogue (UN- ESCO,2011), and the “Peace and Dialogue E- portal”, a UNESCO project providing young people with an e-space where they can learn and access information and literature on toler- ance, reconciliation and a culture of peace, ex- change experiences and enhance intercultural dialogue. Th e “Peace and Dialogue E-portal” will be released as an Open Educational Re- source and designers foresee the creation of an e-course on communication skills enhance- ment in dialogue. > Embrace high profi le events, such as sports, as an instrument for training the capacity for intercultural agility (including cultural code- switching, as well as socialization to fair play), devoting development of commitment to peace. Since so many people already attend sporting events, using them as a vehicle for practicing understanding of and respect for others makes good sense.34 - Intercultural Competences > Enhance the programs specializing in intercul- tural competences training as essential, but also integrate intercultural competences into multi- ple existing higher education degree programs to ensure that these ideas reach more people. > Ensure that cultural policies take intercultural competences into account (including policies at national, regional, and local levels), seeing that they are put into practice across a wide variety of venues. > Promote dialogue for reconciliation and inter- cultural understanding as a way to help people learn from the past. For example, building on the experience of the ongoing Breaking the Si- lence, the Transatlantic Slave Trade Education Project continuing to provide activities for net- working and exchange to increase awareness and deepen knowledge about the causes and conse- quences of the Transatlantic Slave Act works to- wards a future free from racism, discrimination, and intolerance (UNESCO, 2011a, p. 111). Th e Dah Th eatre performed In/Visible City during the normal route of bus no. 26 in Belgrade as a contribution to the Decade of Roma Culture, paid for by the Serbian government. Bus no. 26 connects the two parts of the city where the Cultural Centre Rex and the Dah Th eatre Research Centre are situated. It is always quite crowded and drives across parts of the city having high proportions of immigrant and cultural minority communities, especially Roma people. Artists from the Dah Th eatre, supported by young people and musicians from the minority communities, acted like “strange passengers”, playing the music of specifi c ethnic communities or wearing the costumes of minorities; they performed actions and dances and told stories or sang songs in minority languages. Th e performances were aimed at raising awareness of the multiculturality of Belgrade – a facet of the city that is slowly disappearing or hiding its face behind global billboards and the new emblems of a post-modern city geared towards consumption. Th e action was targeted at the preservation the cultural heritage, especially the intangible heritage, of minorities or ethnic communities such as the Jewish community, the gypsies, Buddhist kalmik, the Byeloussians and Albanians who live dispersed throughout the city. Th e idea to perform on a public bus was aimed at demonstrating the new contemporary spatialization of social relations in the city. Th e stage was the street, the neighborhoods the bus passed through, and important city landmarks – buildings that still keep memories of lost communities. Th e aim of the action was to provide the diff erent minority communities in Belgrade – including those that “disappeared” with spaces where their songs, dances, plays etc. could be performed. Th e action also aimed at creating spaces for inter-ethnic dialogue among the passengers on the bus and the performers.16Intercultural Competences - 35 5. Supporting Intercultural Competences The fi nal step supports intercultural competences through providing adequate resources for investing in any and all of the above activities, the understanding that these are necessary, and a structure within which they can develop and grow. Th e starting point becomes appropriate cultural policies, that is, a clear statement regarding a course of action, regulatory measures, laws, and funding priorities promulgated by a governmental entity (on any administrative level) or its representa- tives relevant for a wide area of culture. Cultural policy is expressed through three means: • Th eoretical assumptions and defi nition of cultural fi eld and public interest in culture through charts and rel- evant jurisdiction (i.e., artistic and cultural creativity; cultural heritage and participation, the availability of cultural goods and services to the population); • Defi nition of cultural policy goals and tasks (i.e., defi n- ing strategies and action plans); and • Implementation (i.e., applying a system of methods and instruments for achieving the cultural policy goals and tasks)(Dragićević Šešić & Dragojević, 2011). In this regard, it should be noted that the Cultural Di- versity Programming Lens (UNESCO, 2011b) works like a lens augmenting vision, specifi cally designed for decision- and policy-makers, program managers and community leaders. It is an interdisciplinary checklist of criteria and questions, supplemented by indicators, providing a means for integrating cultural diversity is- sues while ensuring the participation of all stakeholders across all phases of a given project, including in up- stream research and needs assessment. Speci c steps to be taken: > Forge new partnerships and networks to pro- mote intercultural competences. UNESCO has a unique role to play here because of its man- date to promote cultural diversity, intercultural dialogue and mutual understanding, and of its ability to establish partnerships and networks. > Map existing initiatives related to intercultural competences: there is much work already on- going, and unnecessary duplication should be avoided. Th e goal rather is to coordinate that current work, then see what is missing, fi lling in the gaps with new work. > Promote high profi le events, and existing rel- evant prizes: i.e. the UNESCO International Literacy Prizes and the Calouste Gulbenkian prize for “defending or fostering the univer- sal values of the human condition”.17 Again, the primary role will be in helping to promote existing events and prizes, but it may prove possible to also create new ones as gaps are discovered relating to improving intercultural competences or upholding human rights. > Revisit founding texts coming all over the world that preceded and laid the foundation for intercultural competences: ensure that these have been made available to a wide audience, but also conduct new work to present comple- mentary perspectives on these issues. Here the essential matter will be ensuring an interna- tional perspective, as well as translations into multiple languages (e.g., the Custodian of Th e Two Holy Mosques Abdullah bin Abdulaziz International Award for Translation, organized by the King Abdulaziz Public Library, in Saudi Arabia). What is known needs to be presented in a manner accessible to broad audiences, but also in languages permitting broad dissemi- nation. > Supply information about intercultural com- petences to governments, inter-governmental and non-governmental organizations: the aim is to develop seminars, workshops and train- ing opportunities in order to disseminate new content. Leadership in presenting such semi- nars, workshops and other training opportuni- ties should be given to those with experience in the area so long as current research is also incorporated. > Promote inter-institutional cooperation and funding for intercultural competence topics36 - Intercultural Competences and projects: UNESCO can liaise with other members of the UN family and rel- evant interagency initiatives, as well as with regional inter-governmental organizations active in this fi eld, such as the Council of Europe, ALECSO and ISESCO. Th ese con- tacts would facilitate the conversation about who will support what through its existing network, leading as much as possible to cost sharing. Since intercultural competences have value to every international organiza- tion, every country, and every city, necessary funding should not be impossible to obtain. Inter-institutional cooperation should in- clude both the business sector and the me- dia. In this regard, the international annual campaign “Do One Th ing for Diversity and Inclusion” launched together with the Alli- ance of Civilizations (AoC) on the occasion of the UN World Day for Cultural Diversity for Dialogue and Development on 21 May, has to be mentioned. In fact, it aims at build- ing a world community, committed to sup- porting diversity with concrete, everyday life gestures, thus combatting polarization and stereotypes. > Promote intercultural competences within the framework of UNESCO’s Programme of Action for a Culture of Peace and Non-Violence: the Programme aims at rethinking strategies and operational modalities to draw the benefi ts from cultural diversity, respectful to human rights, while providing individuals and socie- ties with the skills and tools for living together in harmony. Th ese strategies and modalities are tailored to the requirements of an era of social transformations marked by fl uidity, complex- ity, uncertainty, calling for new articulations between cultural diversity and universal values. > Expand the list of professions recognizing the need for intercultural competences that are willing to modify the training of practition- ers appropriately. For example, medical pro- viders discuss not only the need for cultural competence but also for “cultural humility” when they work with patients from diff erent cultures (Tervalon & Murray-Garcia, 1998). Community development workers have ap- plied the same concept to their own context (Ross, 2010). Th e focus on cultural humil- ity is designed not only to emphasize theIntercultural Competences - 37 ongoing nature of gaining competence, and the commitment to self-refl ection and self- critique, but also to deliberately reduce the power diff erential between participants to whatever extent possible. A particularly in- novative program, Esperiencias Interprofesion- ales [interprofessional experiences], off ered in collaboration between the Centro de Es- tudios y Documentación Internacionales de Barcelona and the United Nations Univer- sity International Institute for the Alliance of Civilizations, brings professionals from diverse realms together. Th e most recent example, the EU-Maghreb Cross-Meeting, brought together judges with journalists, from Italy, France Spain, Tunis, Algeria and Morocco. According to the organiser, Yolan- da Onghena: “participants explored the po- litical dimension of the relationship between information and communication.Th ey also discussed the conditions of acceptance and negotiation and the regulation of the spheres of responsibility in diff erent societies of jour- nalists (who play a threefold role as provid- ers of information, disclosers and critics) and judges (who are experts in guaranteeing the law and upholding the essential balances of political and legal pluralism).” 18 > Enhance and support the UNITWIN/UN- ESCO Chairs, relying upon their expertise to help implement all levels of the opera- tional platform, and taking advantage of the strengths of this network, in order to make good use of a currently existing network with directly relevant knowledge and con- nections. In this regard, the development of a programme on intercultural dialogue-based learning has to be mentioned in cooperation with the World Public Forum “Dialogue of Civilizations” and the UNESCO Chair on Philosophy in the Dialogue of Cultures. > Create new centers for excellence and innova- tion as necessary in any and all of the areas discussed in this report, taking advantage of the support of the UNESCO institutes, As- sociated Schools, and UNITWIN/UNESCO Chairs as appropriate. Such centers can serve as vehicles to expand the impact of successful activities, and should be established in many diff erent parts of the world, not only a few locations. Legal decisions already often integrate cultural aspects of a situation, as in Colombia, where the U’wa people believe that twins must be expelled from the community. In 1999, a couple asked the State to accept temporary custody of their twins in order to request permission from their community’s authorities to change the tradition so that they, and future parents, might keep their children. Eventually, the community did change the tradition, but it was important that they do so as a result of their own initiative, rather than being forced to do so by the State. Th e complexity of the case caused much discussion, and serves as a good example of the need for not only intercultural but also intracultural competences.19 Th e city of Helsinki’s Caisa International Cultural Centre, a result of Finland’s Program for the Integration of Immigrants (Ministry of the Interior, Finland, 1999), was quickly successful in both helping recent immigrants maintain their own cultures, and in helping them successfully integrate with the majority. Th e act focused on attitude education and the creation of a physical space where immigrants, and immigrants’ associations, could meet with city representatives, church representatives, and others interested in issues relating to their welfare. Caisa International Cultural Centre was able to improve the public image of immigrants, thus reducing prejudice and discrimination, while simultaneously introducing immigrants to Finnish society. As a result, Caisa has grown substantially in the last few years, hosting the Eurovision Song Contest, and giving out €20 million in grants, both in 2007 (Joronen, 2003; Timonen, 2007).38 - Intercultural Competences VI. Conclusion Many who encourage intercultural competences are coming to understand that people either are competent jointly, or are incompetent, but there is no such thing as one person being interculturally com- petent alone. Only through joint construction of a relationship in which people listen to one another can individuals demonstrate their intercultural compe- tences. Th e costs of intercultural incompetence are so high, including all the dangers of confl ict and war, that it is vital to invest in activities necessary to clarify, teach, promote, enact and support intercul- tural competences. Just as our future depends upon actions taken today, so the future of cultural diver- sity respectful of human rights in our social world depends upon our ability to gain and demonstrate intercultural competences today. Individuals are not born interculturally competent, they become compe- tent through education and life experiences. Th e im- plication, then, is the critical importance of off eringIntercultural Competences - 39 suffi cient quality, formal and non-formal learning opportunities for everyone to acquire the intercul- tural competences required for successful living in the modern complexity of our heterogeneous world. Intercultural dialogue, the process of holding conver- sations among members of diff erent cultural groups whereby individuals listen to and learn from one an- other, serves as the essential starting point. Knowl- edge of the other does not ensure friendship or liking, but can reduce the chance of perceiving “others” only in terms of broad and inaccurate stereotypes. Th e many new media forms available today permit digital connection among people, notably youth, who actu- ally live half the world apart; thus the new media can serve as decisive tools, permitting members of diff er- ent cultural horizons to encounter one another virtu- ally when they have no opportunity to do so physi- cally. Th e fact that numerous challenges to intercul- tural dialogue exist does not provide adequate reason to forego such conversations, since intercultural com- petences can be developed that would facilitate them. As the world grows smaller, the incentive to improv- ing intercultural competences among all members of the global community grows in proportion. Th e question remains as to how UNESCO and its part- ners within governments and civil society can “re- dress the balance between the viral and massive fl ow of information and disinformation in today’s world and the relatively poor development of the institu- tions of communication, in the sense of community and common humanity, allowing ordinary people to distinguish between information and misinfor- mation, notably when depicting diff erent cultures” (Appadurai, 2012). Th e world may be shrinking and the possibilities of dialogue expanding, our ultimate goal nevertheless remains to achieve unity beyond diversity as a tap- estry of peace where common threads of intellectual and moral solidarity bind us together. Without this sense of common purpose, the very fabric of human existence will sunder.40 - Intercultural Competences References Akindes, F. (2005). Braiding lives: Raising African-Pacifi c-Asian children in-between homes. In W. 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State of the art and perspectives on intercultural competences and skills in Arab cultures. Report prepared for UNESCO Experts Meeting on Intercultural Competences, Paris, France, September 21-22, 2011.Intercultural Competences - 43 Acknowledgments Th is document was drafted by Wendy Leeds-Hurwitz, Director of the Center for Intercultural Dialogue, under the coordination of Katérina Stenou, Director of the Intersectoral Platform for a Culture of Peace and Non-Violence, Bureau of Strategic Planning, as a synthesis of, and expansion upon, the numerous documents prepared for, and especially the discussion held during the UNESCO Experts Meeting on Intercultural Competences, October 21-22, 2011, in Paris, France. Th e present report has been constructed upon and benefi ted from diff erent sources: a) fi ve regional reports prepared by Dragićević Šešić & Dragojević (2011), Grimson (2011), Holmes (2009), Steyn (2009), and Youssef (2011); b) a synthesis thereof by Deardoff (2011); and c) the stimulating discussions at the experts’ meeting. In addition, many of UNESCO’s Chairs on Interreligious Dialogue for Intercultural Understanding joined the discussion on October 22, 2011. Photo credits: Aka People Located on the Boundary of China and Laos ©Wang Yizhong (China Folklore Photographic Association, Humanity Photo Awards contest) Buddhist Monks of China © Zhang Wang (China Folklore Photographic Association, Humanity Photo Awards contest) Celebrating the Spring Festival © José Antonio Arias Peláez (China Folklore Photographic Association, Humanity Photo Awards contest)Girls, El Principe de Monte Alban, Mexico © Judith Haden (Santa Fe International Folk Art Festival) International artist village camp sowing seeds (rural + contemporary) Rajasthan, India © Bhupat dudi International artist village camp sowing seeds (rural + contemporary) 2, Rajasthan, India © Bhupat dudi Lama after the Buddha Show, Quighai, China © Pan Qi Men from Sahara © Hans Van Ooyen (China Folklore Photographic Association, Humanity Photo Awards contest) Old Ways in Modern Times © Kathleen Laraia McLaughlin (China Folklore Photographic Association, Humanity Photo Awards contest) Sabina Ramirez, Guatemala, Market Artist © Judith Haden (Santa Fe International Folk Art Festival) Shaolin Kungfu © Hua Qing (China Folklore Photographic Association, Humanity Photo Awards contest) Sufi Dance © Galal El Missary (China Folklore Photographic Association, Humanity Photo Awards contest): back cover Th e Traditional Romanian Flute© Croitoru Bogdan Alexandru (China Folklore Photographic Association, Humanity Photo Awards contest) Pollera, traditional costume of Panama, city of Panama, Republic of Panama © AUED Juan Alejandro Quintero Mora All other photographs: Marc Hurwitz and Wendy Leeds- Hurwitz Design credit: Spencer Elizabeth Karczewski and Anne Chemin-Roberty44 - Intercultural Competences Notes 1 Th e term is used in the plural since there are many related skills, attitudes, and many types of knowledge that must co-exist simultaneously. Publications in the U.S.A. often use the variation “competencies”. 2 In 1998 the United Nations General Assembly stipulated that a culture of peace “consists of values, attitudes and behaviours that refl ect and inspire social interaction and sharing based on the principles of freedom, justice and democracy, all human rights, tolerance and solidarity, that reject violence and endeavor to prevent confl icts by tackling their root causes to solve problems through dialogue and negotiation and that guarantee the full exercise of all rights and the means to participate fully in the development process of their society” (Resolution 52/13 of January 15, 1998. Available from http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/ UNDOC/GEN/N98/760/15/PDF/N9876015.pdf?OpenElement). 3 Adapted from documentation provided in United Nations (2001) and UNESCO (2006a). 4 Social and economic homogenization and fragmentation are also part of the issue, of course. 5 No one publication includes all of these, as this is a compilation of current thinking within intercultural communication research, mostly as practiced with the United States. 6 “Co-cultures” evolved as a response to concern that the earlier term “subcultures” might be viewed as somehow denigrating. Subcultures are smaller groups existing simultaneously within a larger culture; calling them co-cultures emphasizes the essential equality of all of these smaller groups (Orbe, 1998). 7 One typical division is into the categories of attitudes, knowledge, skills, internal outcomes, and external outcomes, as in Deardorff (2011). 8 For more information, consult the 2012 EFA Global Monitoring Report at the following link: http:// unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002180/218003e.pdf#page=185. 9 Again, no one publication includes all of these, as this is a brief compilation and summary of current thinking within intercultural communication research. 10 http://www.publicdialogue.org/pdc/index.html 11 Th e term was suggested by Yves Winkin as part of group discussion at the UNESCO Experts Meeting on Intercultural Competences, Paris, France, September 21-22, 2011, drawing on the previously existing term “shifters” (Silverstein, 1976). 12 Discussion of uchi-soto comes from Eric Cattelain and Yoshitaka Miike; see Bachnik and Quinn (1994) and Makino (2002) for further details. 13 Despite not incorporating the vocabulary of refl exivity, the Council of Europe’s Autobiography of intercultural encounters works by relying upon the individual’s ability to describe a personal experience of intercultural diff erence, refl ect upon what occurred, and draw conclusions to employ in future encounters. 14 http://projectllull.com 15 For analysis of this technique, see Federici and Reggiani (2005); for examples, see http://www. grupocomunicar.com/index.php?coleccion=comicsi 16 Documentation available on http://www.dahteatarcentar.com; discussion from Dragićević Šešić & Dragojević (2011). 17 http://www.gulbenkian.pt/ 18 http://unu.edu/news/2012/07/exploring-the-political-dimension-of-information-and-communication.html 19 Discussed by Grimson (2011); original documentation in Sánchez de Guzmán (2006).What are intercultural competences and why are they necessary in this globalizing world that has moved people of diff erent backgrounds closer together? What place do intercultural competences take – and what place should they take – in shaping this new landscape? Globalization shrinks the world, bringing a wider range of cultures into closer contact with one another more often than in previous generations. Cultural diversity and intercultural contact have become facts of modern life, so intercultural competence becomes a requisite response. Since we understand cultural diversity to be a resource (in the ways that biodiversity serves as a resource), we must learn to cope with the implications, using cultural diversity as the resource that it can be. To develop intercultural competences facilitates relationships and interactions among people from various origins and cultures as well as within heterogeneous groups, all of whom all must learn to live together in peace. Once the need for intercultural competence is accepted and felt as urgent, it becomes essential to develop a broad range of theoretical concepts and defi nitions, taking into consideration the existing plurality of languages, histories and identities. Mutual trust and exchange about similar and diff ering experiences, values and overlapping lives serve as the beginning points for developing these common defi nitions and creating a new space of interactions. Th is document fi rst provides key concepts to nurture the debate on intercultural competences and then an operational plan, to turn debate into action demonstrating that everyone needs intercultural competences today as a result of globalization, and so eff orts must be made to ensure that everyone gains them. “We must promote a positive vision of cultural diversity and advance cultural literacy through learning, exchanges and dialogue. Th ese are essential for fi ghting against discrimination, prejudice and extremism. Cultural diversity and cultural literacy are essential forces for the renewal of our societies.” Irina Bokova, UNESCO Director-General